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No major letter or speech survives that directly captures President Samuel Huntington’s thoughts on the ratification of the Articles of Confederation or his sense of the role as the nation's first constitutional president. Nevertheless, with the Articles’ ratification, the office of the “President of the United States in Congress Assembled” was formally established, defining the president's responsibilities and limitations. The Articles set the presidential term to one year, with the stipulation:
“…to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years” [21].
By the time of ratification in March 1781, Huntington had already served as President of the Continental Congress for 17 months. Although the Articles limited a president’s term to a single year, this restriction only came into effect with the official ratification date of March 1, 1781. Thus, Huntington was eligible to continue as President under the Articles until February 28, 1782. Additionally, Article V of the Articles of Confederation specified that:
“…the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year."
Huntington, elected to the presidency in September 1780, had already committed to serve until September 1781. Given his experience and steady leadership during a challenging period, the delegates in Congress mutually agreed that he should remain in office until the new Congress convened under the Articles’ timeline, on Monday, November 5, 1781.
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March 1, 1781 Articles of Confederation ratification entry, from the The Journals of Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled, For the Year 1781, Published By Order of Congress, Volume VII New York: Printed by John Patterson - Historic.us Collection Notice Article 1 names the Perpetual Union's Confederacy The United States of America. Moreover Article 2 names the new constitutional governing body 'The United States in Congress Assembled." |
With this continuity, Huntington’s presidency set a precedent for the role and underscored the evolving nature of American governance, as the new Congress prepared to function as the first fully unified governing body of the United States.
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Journal entry recording the start of the United States in Congress Assembled and "His excellency Samuel Huntington, delegate for Connecticut, President" from the The Journals of Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled, For the Year 1781, Published By Order of Congress, Volume VII New York: Printed by John Patterson - Historic.us Collection As President of the United States in Congress Assembled, Samuel Huntington led the critical initiative to address constitutional requirements under the newly ratified Articles of Confederation. One of the first tasks was to form a committee that would address the Articles' specifications, including drafting a new set of Congressional rules that aligned with the Constitution of 1777. Among the constitutional questions the new Congress faced was whether delegates who had served for three years in the former Continental Congress could now retain their seats under the United States in Congress Assembled. The Articles established that no delegate should serve more than three years in any six-year period; however, a judicial interpretation was needed to determine if previous service counted under the new government framework. With Huntington presiding, the delegates, acting in their judicial capacity, resolved that prior service in the Continental Congress did not count toward the term limits in the new Confederation Congress. This decision rested on the distinction that the delegates’ earlier service had been under the Articles of Association and various subsequent resolutions, not under the Articles of Confederation. Thus, Huntington’s presidency and the terms of other delegates were determined to have officially begun only with the ratification of the Articles, marking the commencement of the "Perpetual Union known as the United States of America." This decision set a precedent, but another issue quickly emerged: the Articles required each state to be represented by at least two delegates to cast a valid vote. On March 2, 1781, the day after ratification, this rule immediately impacted New Hampshire and Rhode Island, as both states had only one delegate present, thus disqualifying them from voting. This situation was particularly delicate, as both delegates had just voted the previous day, under the Continental Congress, on essential resolutions for the Treasury and the Board of War—decisions crucial to sustaining the war effort against Britain. Delaware delegate Thomas Rodney, in his diary entry dated March 2, 1781, described the dilemma faced by the newly formed Congress:
Sullivan argued that Congress should either temporarily allow the single delegates to vote or, alternatively, appoint a Committee of the States to ensure New Hampshire and Rhode Island had a voice in legislative matters. Sullivan contended:
The motion received support from General Vernon of Rhode Island, who reinforced Sullivan’s arguments. However, North Carolina’s Thomas Burke and others “ably confuted” their arguments, pointing out the constitutional contradictions inherent in Sullivan’s request. As Rodney recorded, the motion ultimately failed, "the question passed off without a Division." Despite their inability to vote, the general consensus in Congress allowed the single delegates from New Hampshire and Rhode Island to continue participating in debates and serving on committees, though they could not represent their states with a formal vote. This incident solidified the understanding that the Articles of Confederation were now fully in force. The new Congress resolved that each state must be represented by at least two delegates to have voting rights, as stipulated in Article V of the Articles of Confederation:
This adherence to the Articles established that the new government was indeed bound by the full authority of the Articles of Confederation. As such, it was Samuel Huntington, not John Hanson (as later claimed by Maryland), who served as the first President of the United States in Congress Assembled under the Articles of Confederation. To substantiate this, records from the Journals of the Continental Congress provide irrefutable evidence. An entry from December 24, 1778, shows a Continental Congress voting tally presided over by President Henry Laurens, in which states with only one delegate—New Hampshire, Delaware, Rhode Island, and Georgia—were allowed to cast votes. Following ratification, however, the new Congress strictly adhered to Article V, barring states with fewer than two delegates from casting votes. |
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Thursday, December 24, 1778 Journals of Congress entry of the US Continental Congress vote on " the support of the charge against Brigadier Thompson, be rejected, and that the deposition of Colonel Noarth, produced last night by Brigadier Thompson in his own exculpation from the charge, be also rejected ... passed in the negative" Journals of Congress Containing the proceedings from January 1st, 1779 to Jan. 1st, 1780 PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF Congress, Philadelphia, by David Claypoole, VOLUME V. -- Image courtesy of the Historic.us Collection. |
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Thursday, MARCH 22, 1781 Journals of Congress entry of the USCA vote "Resolved, That there be one deputy director of the military hospitals, in the Southern district subject to the general control of the director... So it passed in the negative." The Journals of Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled, For the Year 1781, Published By Order of Congress, Volume VII New York: Printed by John Patterson. -- Image courtesy of the Historic.us Collection. |
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Wednesday, November 14, 1781 Journals of Congress entry of the USCA vote "That the first Tuesday of December next, be assigned for the consideration of the report of the committee, to whom were referred the cessions of New York, Virginia, Connecticut, and the petitions of the Indiana, Vandalia, Illinois, and Wabash companies. A motion was made by Mr. Smith, seconded by Mr. Varnum, to amend, by adding, "provided that eleven states shall be then represented." On the question to agree to the amendment, the yeas and nays being required by Mr. Varnum, ... So it passed in the negative." The Journals of Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled, For the Year 1781, Published By Order of Congress, Volume VII New York: Printed by John Patterson. -- Image courtesy of the Historic.us Collection. |
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| March 12, 1781 Treasury letter referring to Samuel Huntington a President of the United States in Congress Assembled |
On March 20, 1781, President Samuel Huntington issued a solemn proclamation on behalf of the United States in Congress Assembled, designating a national Fast Day to implore divine wisdom, protection, and favor. As the young nation struggled for survival in a brutal war, Huntington’s proclamation was an urgent appeal for unity and repentance, framed in powerful and evocative language:
“In times of calamity and impending danger when a vindictive enemy pursues with unrelenting fury a war of rapine and devastation to reduce us by fire and sword, by the savages of the wilderness and our own domestics to the most abject and ignominious bondage; it becomes the indispensable duty of the citizens of these United States with true penitence of heart publicly to acknowledge the over ruling Providence of God, to confess our offences against him, and to supplicate his gracious interposition for averting the threatened danger and preparing our efforts in the defense and preservation of our injured country."
He continued, urging a collective show of faith and humility:
"At all times it is our duty to acknowledge the over-ruling providence of the great Governor of the universe, and devoutly to implore his divine favor and protection. But in the hour of calamity and impending danger…we are peculiarly excited, with true penitence of heart, to prostrate ourselves before our great Creator, and fervently to supplicate his gracious interposition for our deliverance.”
Huntington’s proclamation designated May 3 as a day of “humiliation, fasting, and prayer,” calling on the citizens to acknowledge their transgressions and seek divine mercy. He outlined specific intentions for the day:
"…that it may please him to inspire our rulers with wisdom and uncorruptible integrity, and to direct and prosper their councils: to inspire all our citizens with a fervent and disinterested love of their country, and to preserve and strengthen their union...to animate our officers and forces by sea and land with invincible fortitude, and to guard and protect them in the day of battle…that the blessings of peace and liberty may be established on an honourable and permanent basis, and transmitted inviolate to the latest posterity" [24].
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The United States in Congress Assembled, March 20th, 1781, Proclamation signed by Samuel Huntington as President, calling for the first National "Day of Humiliation, Fasting, and Prayer" under the Articles of Confederation |
Huntington’s heartfelt appeal highlighted Congress’s role not only as a legislative body but as a moral and spiritual leader, guiding a struggling nation through both political and existential crises.
On April 5, 1781, Congress passed a significant ordinance regarding judicial authority over piracy. This ordinance reaffirmed Congress’s “sole and exclusive right and power (inter alia) of appointing courts for the trial of piracies…” and empowered “the justices of the supreme or superior courts of judicature, and judge of the Court of Admiralty of the several and respective states, or any two or more of them” [25] to hear and try offenders accused of piracy. This ordinance established a framework for federal judicial authority over maritime crimes, reflecting Congress’s focus on law and order amid wartime.
By late April, the heavy burdens of office began to take a toll on President Huntington’s health. As the only delegate from Connecticut, Huntington bore an immense workload, representing anywhere from 1/13th to 1/7th of the congressional votes, depending on quorum size. On April 30, 1781, he wrote to Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull, expressing his physical and mental strain:
“I hope, before this, some delegates from Connecticut are on the way to Congress, as I am once more left alone from the state and shall not be able to attend any considerable time longer myself” [26].
Huntington’s plea underscored his commitment but also revealed the pressing need for relief. The demands of representing his state alone, while simultaneously leading the USCA, were proving unsustainable.
On May 8, Huntington formally requested leave from his role as President. Congress designated May 10 for the election of his successor, but no candidate received more than two votes, leaving Huntington to continue presiding over Congress. Writing to Richard Henry Lee, John Witherspoon noted the prolonged uncertainty over Huntington’s tenure:
“The President of Congress asked Leave lately to go home and a Day was fixed for the Choice of another. The Ballots being taken upon that Day no one had more than two Votes so that we requested the President to continue & it was postponed sine die and I think it probable he will continue till the Fall.”
Meanwhile, Huntington’s Congress made strides in refining the governance process. On May 4, 1781, after three months of committee work and extensive debate, the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) formally adopted thirty-five new rules for conducting national business under the Articles of Confederation [27]. These rules streamlined operations and clarified procedures but also significantly altered the role of the president, stripping the office of many discretionary powers. The president would no longer control the timing or selection of matters presented to Congress, a change that symbolized a shift towards a more collective leadership model within the USCA.
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Rules for Conduction Business, May 4th, 1781, entry of The Journals of Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled, For the Year 1781, Published By Order of Congress, Volume VII New York: Printed by John Patterson. This entry reports the that new governing entity, The United States in Congress Assembled, now governs the United States of America -- Image courtesy of the Historic.us Collection. |
The next major priorities for President Samuel Huntington and Congress were twofold: stabilizing the United States’ deteriorating monetary system and addressing the urgent needs of the Continental Army. The young nation faced rampant inflation, a crumbling credit system, and a nearly worthless Continental dollar. Years of heavy borrowing and a lack of centralized taxation had drained the Treasury, leaving Congress with few financial tools to meet its obligations. The economy was under immense strain, and Congress was forced to rely heavily on requests for financial support from the states—many of which struggled with their own financial shortfalls.
Recognizing the critical need for a stable currency and sound monetary policy, Huntington and his fellow delegates focused on restoring public confidence in the nation's finances. One transformative proposal came from financier Robert Morris, later appointed Superintendent of Finance, who advocated for establishing a central bank to stabilize the currency and manage the national debt. His plan involved creating a national bank with a capital of $400,000 based in Philadelphia, where the bank's promissory notes would serve as a legal-tender currency, acceptable for all taxes, duties, and debts owed to the United States. This approach represented a significant shift in Congress’s role in financial governance, moving toward a more centralized financial infrastructure that could support the fledgling nation.
On May 17, 1781, Congress approved Morris's proposal for a national bank, adopting the following resolution:
"Resolved, That Congress do approve of the plan for establishing a national bank in these United States, submitted to their consideration by Mr. R. Morris, the 17 day of May, 1781; and that they will promote and support the same by such ways and means, from time to time, as may appear necessary for the institution and consistent with the public good:
"That the subscribers to the said bank shall be incorporated agreeably to the principles and terms of the plan, under the name of The President, Directors and company of the bank of North-America, so soon as the subscription shall be filled, the directors and president chosen, and application for that purpose made to Congress by the president and directors elected. So it was resolved in the affirmative” [28].
Morris’s creation, the Bank of North America, furnished essential financial support, allowing the Continental Army to avoid disbandment. Through his strategic use of tax revenue, private credit, and even his own fortune, Morris provided the Continental forces with much-needed stability.
With renewed financial resources, support from the French alliance, and the thirteen states now formally united under a constitutional framework, George Washington began planning a major offensive against British forces. On May 22, 1781, Washington met with Comte de Rochambeau, commander of the French forces stationed in Rhode Island, in Wethersfield, Connecticut. Together, they issued a formal request to French Admiral François Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse, asking him to sail northward to support a joint campaign against British troops in New York.
Alongside these financial reforms, Congress also faced the pressing issue of the Continental Army’s suffering and instability. The army, lacking adequate supplies and pay, was plagued by hunger, disease, and low morale, which had already led to instances of mutiny among the Pennsylvania and New Jersey brigades earlier that year. Huntington and Congress recognized that without immediate action, the deteriorating conditions of the army could critically threaten the American war effort.
Despite limited resources, Congress sought ways to improve support for the army. This included reaching out to foreign allies for additional aid, coordinating more substantial contributions from the states, and implementing supply chain reforms to increase efficiency. The new constitutional structure under the Articles allowed for the appointment of executive officers and specialized committees, such as the Superintendent of Finance, who were tasked with handling these complex issues directly. Delegating responsibility in this manner enabled Congress to address the crisis more effectively within the constraints of the Articles of Confederation.
Together, these initiatives to stabilize the currency, secure funding, and support the military marked Congress’s first real exercise of its constitutional powers. Huntington’s leadership, combined with the collaborative efforts of Congress, laid the foundation for stronger fiscal management and underscored the importance of a unified military strategy. This period represented a pivotal moment for the early Republic, as Congress moved to realize the ideals of unity and independence by addressing the essential needs of financial stability and national defense. Through these steps, Huntington and Congress worked to turn the nation’s ideals into actionable reality, establishing the framework upon which the United States could pursue both sovereignty and stability.
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Resolved that Congress do approve the plan for establishing a national bank in these United States, Submitted to their consideration by Mr. R. Morris the 17th May 1781... So it was Resolved in the Affirmative. The Journals of Congress and the United States in Congress Assembled, For the Year 1781, Published By Order of Congress, Volume VII New York: Printed by John Patterson. - Image courtesy of the Historic.us Collection |
Meanwhile, in the southern theater, Marquis de Lafayette was engaged in a grueling campaign in Virginia, working to fend off British raiding parties commanded by Benedict Arnold. To the south, Major General Nathanael Greene faced the daunting task of containing British Lt. General Charles Cornwallis in the Carolinas. Following the British capture of Charleston on May 12, 1780, Cornwallis held control over crucial southern ports as well as the South Carolina backcountry. After defeating General Horatio Gates, the hero of Saratoga, at the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780, Cornwallis solidified British dominance in the region.
The tide began to turn with the arrival of General George Washington’s new southern commander, Nathanael Greene, on December 3, 1780. Greene implemented a strategic shift by dividing his forces, deploying Brigadier General Daniel Morgan southwest of the Catawba River to disrupt British supply lines and undermine Cornwallis’s operations in the backcountry. On January 17, 1781, Morgan dealt a significant blow to Cornwallis’s forces at the Battle of Cowpens, capturing large numbers of British cavalry and mounted troops.
Determined to capture Morgan and Greene, Cornwallis burned his baggage wagons to increase his mobility in the “Race to the Dan River,” hoping to intercept the American forces as they headed toward the Virginia border. However, Greene’s strategy—bolstered by the guerrilla tactics of the “Swamp Fox” Francis Marion—enabled him to evade Cornwallis. This forced Cornwallis to exhaust resources and manpower in pursuit of an enemy that proved elusive.
On March 15, 1781, Cornwallis managed to engage Greene at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in North Carolina. Although technically a British victory, it came at a high cost: Cornwallis’s troops suffered heavy casualties, and his resources were severely depleted. This Pyrrhic victory forced Cornwallis to reconsider his approach, prompting him to abandon his Carolina campaign and move northward into Virginia, where he hoped to join forces with British General Henry Clinton in New York to mount a decisive blow against Washington’s Continental Army.
While Greene’s orders kept him in the Carolinas to protect the local citizenry, Cornwallis moved into Virginia, setting up camp on the plantation of William Byrd. General Clinton, upon learning of Cornwallis’s movements, was infuriated that Greene had driven Cornwallis from the Carolinas—a direct defiance of Clinton’s orders to secure southern ports like Charleston and Savannah. Nonetheless, reinforcements arrived in Virginia for Cornwallis, swelling his forces from 1,600 to over 7,000 men, and with them, he received fresh orders to wreak havoc on Virginia and cripple its government.
Intent on destabilizing Virginia’s leadership, Cornwallis dispatched British Lt. Colonel Banastre Tarleton northward with a raiding party that nearly captured Governor Thomas Jefferson at Monticello on June 4, 1781. Jefferson, forewarned by keen-eyed lookouts, narrowly escaped with other state officials to the safety of the Shenandoah Valley. In southern Virginia, Cornwallis continued to harass General Lafayette’s smaller, under-supplied force until Lafayette was reinforced by Major General Anthony Wayne and 1,000 fresh troops, enabling him to stand against Cornwallis’s raids more effectively.
Meanwhile, in the northern campaign, French Commander Rochambeau and his army joined forces with Washington at Dobbs Ferry, New York, preparing for a coordinated assault on the British in Manhattan. Washington’s plan was to strike Clinton’s forces in New York, where the British garrison was stretched thin between commitments in Virginia and Charleston. In early July, Clinton received word that Admiral de Grasse and the French fleet were en route to the American theater, prompting him to urgently request that Cornwallis, now encamped in Williamsburg, send 3,000 troops to reinforce New York. Cornwallis, struggling to contain Lafayette and Wayne, began preparations to evacuate Williamsburg, planning to send troops north as ordered. He also sought Clinton’s permission to return to Charleston, hoping to restore British control over the South.
Lafayette seized the opportunity to disrupt Cornwallis’s movements. On July 6, 1781, Lafayette engaged Cornwallis’s forces at Green Spring, Virginia, near the James River, marking a fierce skirmish as Cornwallis attempted to retreat.
Back in Philadelphia, President Samuel Huntington, like his predecessors John Hancock and Henry Laurens, found his health deteriorating under the strain of the presidency. Despite the delegates’ urging for him to remain, Huntington tendered his resignation on July 6, 1781. Yet, even in his final days in office, Huntington continued to handle critical affairs of state. On July 5, just one day before his resignation, Huntington transmitted confidential instructions to the American ministers abroad regarding forthcoming treaty negotiations with Great Britain. In a coded dispatch to John Adams, Huntington directed:
“…You will immediately communicate the receipt of these Dispatches to Dr. Franklin and Mr. Jay.”
This correspondence, written in cipher, provided explicit guidance on treaty strategies, reflecting Huntington’s meticulous attention to the nation’s diplomatic posture even as he prepared to step down. (Source: Library of Congress)
Samuel Huntington to John Adams dated July 5, 1781 just days before his resignation with explicit instructions in “Cyphers” ordering the Foreign Minister “You will immediately communicate the receipt of these Dispatches to Dr. Franklin and Mr. Jay.” – Courtesy of the Library of Congress
The official record in the United States in Congress Assembled Journals on July 6, 1781, noted:
"The President having informed the United States in Congress assembled, that his ill state of health…[would] not permit him to continue longer in the exercise of the duties of that office" [29].
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| USCA Secretary Charles Thomson letter to Major General Greene informing him of President Samuel Huntington's resignation. |
Following President Samuel Huntington’s resignation due to declining health on July 6, 1781, Congress initially delayed electing a successor, hoping he might recover and reconsider his departure. However, Huntington did not return to his duties, and on July 9, Congress officially acknowledged his service with a resolution of gratitude:
“That the thanks of Congress be given to the hon. Samuel Huntington, late President of Congress, in testimony of their approbation of his conduct in the chair and in the execution of public business” [30].
The impact of Huntington’s service was not only felt in Congress but also celebrated by notable contemporaries. John Witherspoon, the President of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) and a respected political figure, wrote to Huntington following his retirement, commending his dedication to the nation:
“With great satisfaction I observe by the public papers, the joyful and honorable reception you met with on your arrival, so expressive of that affection and approbation which to you will be the most grateful tribute of praise your country can bestow, and next to your consciousness of your having labored how to establish the liberties of America, will be the greatest happiness you can enjoy” [31].
On July 9, 1781, Congress proceeded with the first presidential election under the Articles of Confederation. North Carolina Delegate Samuel Johnston was elected as Huntington’s successor. However, in an unexpected turn, Johnston declined the office the very next day. The handwritten entry in the Journals of the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) notes Johnston’s election and a measure for official business:
“The honble. Samuel Johnston was elected. A letter of this day, from the superintendant of finance was read: Ordered, That it be referred to a committee of three: The members, Mr. Mathews, Mr. Carroll, Mr. Sullivan.”
Though technically elected, historians largely agree that Johnston did not assume the presidential chair. The brevity of the session, which did not extend to the typical formal proceedings of a new president, has led scholars to conclude that Johnston likely did not preside over Congress. Instead, the session was most likely led by the presiding delegate or by USCA Secretary Charles Thomson, who often managed procedural duties in such situations. This interpretation is further supported by the language in the USCA Journals of July 10, which states that Johnston “declined” the office rather than “resigned”:
“Mr. [Samuel] Johnston having declined to accept the office of President, and offered such reasons as were satisfactory, the House proceeded to another election; and, the ballots being taken, the Hon. Thomas McKean was elected” [17].
With Johnston’s formal declination, Congress proceeded to elect Thomas McKean of Delaware, who accepted the office and officially began his tenure as President on July 10, 1781. McKean’s presidency was notable for bridging a critical period during the Revolutionary War as the new government adapted to the Articles of Confederation.
McKean’s succession to the presidency preceded the term of John Hanson by four months, challenging the common misconception that Hanson was the first “President under the Articles.” In fact, it was Huntington’s resignation, Johnston’s brief election, and McKean’s acceptance that shaped this transitional period in Congress, paving the way for the United States to solidify its government structure amidst the chaos of war.
"…will herewith deliver your Excellency the two coach horses which are kept for the use of the President of Congress. After they had brought me home, their shoes were immediately taken off, and I ordered them kept in the best manner. They are now in very good order" [32].
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| President Samuel Huntington |
September 28, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress elects Samuel Huntington as President of Congress, succeeding John Jay. Congress also adopts commissions and instructions for John Adams and John Jay as they prepare to negotiate peace and alliances with Spain and Britain.
October 1779
October 1, 1779 (Friday):
Congress orders the preparation of a plan for reorganizing the conduct of naval affairs, reflecting concerns about the management of the Continental Navy and the need for more effective leadership.
October 2, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress requests claimants in Vermont to authorize Congress to settle the ongoing territorial dispute. The Vermont issue had become increasingly contentious as the region sought recognition as a separate state.
October 4, 1779 (Monday):
Congress adopts instructions for John Jay, the newly appointed Minister to Spain, as he prepares to negotiate an alliance and support for the American cause.
October 6, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress admonishes General Benedict Arnold for his treatment of Pennsylvania officials. Arnold’s conduct while serving as the military commander of Philadelphia had raised concerns, marking the beginning of his fall from grace.
October 7, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress calculates and apportions the fiscal quotas for 1780, determining how much each state should contribute to the war effort.
October 9, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a circular letter to the states urging them to meet their fiscal quotas, as the war effort continued to place enormous financial demands on Congress.
October 13, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes Arthur Lee, the controversial American commissioner in Europe, to return to America. Lee had been involved in numerous diplomatic disputes during his time abroad.
October 14, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress commends General John Sullivan for his leadership in the expedition against Native American tribes allied with the British. Congress also resolves to emit an additional $5 million and sets a national day of thanksgiving.
October 15, 1779 (Friday):
Congress adopts further instructions for John Jay and resolves to seek a loan in Holland, recognizing the need to secure foreign funds to support the war effort.
October 20, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts the national day of thanksgiving proclamation, calling on Americans to give thanks for their victories and perseverance during the war.
October 21, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress appoints Henry Laurens, a former president of Congress, to negotiate a Dutch loan, recognizing Laurens’ diplomatic experience and the importance of securing financial support from European powers.
October 22, 1779 (Friday):
Congress rejects an appeal for Continental intervention against state taxation of Continental quartermasters, affirming the autonomy of the states in taxation matters.
October 26, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts instructions for the negotiation of a Dutch loan and a treaty of amity and commerce, continuing efforts to expand diplomatic and financial ties with European powers.
October 28, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress creates a Board of Admiralty, ending the management of naval affairs by a congressional committee. The new board was designed to provide more efficient oversight of the Continental Navy.
October 30, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress urges Virginia to reconsider its decision to open a land office for the sale of unappropriated lands. The sale of western lands was a contentious issue, particularly in the context of territorial disputes and the need to settle land claims.
November 1779
November 1, 1779 (Monday):
Congress appoints Henry Laurens to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with the Dutch Republic, part of the ongoing effort to secure foreign alliances and financial support.
November 2-3, 1779 (Tuesday-Wednesday):
Congress adjourns due to the expiration of President Samuel Huntington’s credentials as a Connecticut delegate, a procedural issue that temporarily halted congressional business.
November 5, 1779 (Friday):
Congress is notified of the British evacuation of Rhode Island, a major victory for American forces. Congress also appoints a committee to plan an executive board to supervise Continental officials, aiming to improve the administration of the war effort.
November 8, 1779 (Monday):
Congress requests the correspondence files of former presidents of Congress, likely to ensure continuity and institutional memory in decision-making.
November 9, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress elects new Treasury officers as part of its ongoing efforts to improve the management of war finances.
November 10, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the deployment of three frigates to South Carolina, where British forces continued their push into the southern colonies.
November 11, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress orders reinforcements for the southern department and observes the funeral of Joseph Hewes, a North Carolina delegate and signer of the Declaration of Independence.
November 13, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress rejects the resignation of General John Sullivan, who had led the successful campaign against British-aligned Native American tribes. Congress also approves the parole of British Generals William Phillips and Baron Riedesel, captured as part of the Saratoga Convention Army.
November 16, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress undertakes the care of Spanish prisoners held in New York, reflecting Spain’s new alliance with the American cause. Congress also rejects an appeal from Massachusetts to retain Continental taxes to offset the costs of the failed Penobscot expedition.
November 17, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress holds an audience with the newly arrived French minister, the Chevalier de La Luzerne, who had replaced Gérard. Congress also resolves to emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency.
November 18, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress gives General Washington the authority to coordinate operations with French armed forces, cementing the Franco-American military alliance.
November 19, 1779 (Friday):
Congress recommends that the states adopt price regulations to combat inflation and stabilize the wartime economy.
November 23, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to draw bills of exchange worth £100,000 sterling on John Jay and Henry Laurens, providing them with funds for their diplomatic missions in Europe.
November 25, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress adopts new regulations for clothing the Continental Army, addressing ongoing shortages. Congress also discharges the committee responsible for superintending the commissary and quartermaster departments, signaling a shift in administrative oversight.
November 26, 1779 (Friday):
Congress appoints Admiralty commissioners to oversee naval operations, further centralizing the management of naval affairs.
November 29, 1779 (Monday):
Congress commemorates the death of General Casimir Pulaski, a Polish nobleman who had died of wounds sustained at the Battle of Savannah. Congress also resolves to emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency and accepts the resignation of Commissary General Jeremiah Wadsworth.
November 30, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with General Washington at his headquarters, reflecting ongoing coordination between the military and political leadership. Congress also accepts the resignation of General John Sullivan.
December 1779
December 2, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress receives notification of Spain’s formal declaration of war against Britain, a significant development in the international dimensions of the American Revolution. Congress also appoints Ephraim Blaine as the new commissary general of purchases.
December 3, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to move its sessions from Philadelphia at the end of April 1780, reflecting concerns over the city’s vulnerability to British attack.
December 6, 1779 (Monday):
Congress orders reinforcements to bolster the armed forces in the southern department, where British forces were making significant gains.
December 9, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress observes the national day of thanksgiving, a tradition that had been proclaimed earlier in the fall to recognize the perseverance of the American people and military.
December 15, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress recommends that the states extend the provisions embargo until April 1780, seeking to maintain control over resources critical to the war effort.
December 16, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes General Benjamin Lincoln, commander of the southern department, to coordinate operations with Spanish officers stationed at Havana, Cuba. This decision reflects the growing importance of Spanish support in the southern theater of the war.
December 20-24, 1779 (Monday-Friday):
Congress debates a proposal to borrow $20 million abroad, part of the ongoing effort to secure foreign loans to finance the war. The financial crisis continued to dominate discussions as Congress struggled to fund the Continental Army.
December 24, 1779 (Friday):
Congress authorizes the use of depositions from witnesses at courts-martial in non-capital cases, streamlining the judicial process in military courts.
December 27, 1779 (Monday):
Congress recommends a moratorium on granting lands in the region of the Pennsylvania-Virginia boundary dispute, hoping to prevent further conflicts over land claims. Congress also orders the Post Office to institute twice-weekly deliveries, replacing the previous weekly service.
December 28, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes Continental reimbursement for militia expenses incurred during the defense of Connecticut against British invasions.
December 31, 1779 (Friday):
Congress endorses a Board of War plan to employ greater secrecy to reduce procurement expenses, reflecting concerns about waste, fraud, and the efficient management of wartime logistics.
Journals of the Continental Congress - United States of America - 1780
January 1780
January 3, 1780 (Monday):
Congress postpones a decision on selecting a new site for its sessions. The vulnerability of Philadelphia to British attack had prompted discussions about relocating Congress to a more secure location.
January 4-8, 1780:
Congress debates a plan for creating a Court of Appeals, aimed at handling admiralty cases and other legal matters that had arisen during the war. This new court would provide a mechanism for settling disputes related to maritime captures and trade.
January 8, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress reorganizes Georgia’s Continental regiments, which had been weakened by the British occupation of Savannah. This reorganization was part of broader efforts to reinforce the southern department.
January 10, 1780 (Monday):
Congress dismisses General Charles Lee, the second-ranking officer in the Continental Army, following a series of controversies, including his conduct at the Battle of Monmouth. Congress also debates plans to reduce the size of the army in order to curtail expenses, as the war’s financial strain was becoming increasingly severe.
January 12, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress sends an emergency appeal to the states for provisions to supply the Continental Army, which was suffering from severe shortages. Congress also abolishes the mustermaster’s department, a cost-cutting measure as part of efforts to streamline military administration.
January 13, 1780 (Thursday):
New regulations for prisoner exchanges are adopted by Congress, formalizing the process of negotiating the exchange of prisoners of war with the British.
January 14, 1780 (Friday):
Congress recommends that the states guarantee the privileges and immunities of French citizens living in the United States, as recognized in the Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce. This was part of ongoing efforts to strengthen ties with France.
January 15, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress officially creates a Court of Appeals in admiralty cases, providing a legal mechanism for resolving disputes over maritime captures, trade, and related matters.
January 17, 1780 (Monday):
Congress endorses the export of grain to French forces, facilitating cooperation with French military and naval operations. This decision was made at the request of the French agent of marine, who was responsible for provisioning French forces stationed in America.
January 18, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to print its journals monthly but ends the practice of printing the yeas and nays from its votes, likely to reduce costs and maintain some level of discretion in decision-making.
January 20, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress orders an investigation into the expenses of the staff departments and abolishes the barrackmaster’s department, part of an ongoing effort to reduce military expenditures.
January 22, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress elects judges to serve on the newly created Court of Appeals, ensuring the court could begin functioning to handle disputes.
January 24, 1780 (Monday):
New measures for recruiting Continental troops are adopted, as the army continued to struggle with recruitment and retention issues.
January 25, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress halts the pay of inactive naval officers, another cost-cutting measure aimed at reducing unnecessary expenditures.
January 26, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with the French minister, Chevalier de La Luzerne, on joint Franco-American military operations, reflecting the importance of coordination with French forces.
January 27, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes inflation adjustments for the salaries of Continental officials, responding to the widespread depreciation of Continental currency and the rising cost of living.
January 31, 1780 (Monday):
Congress pledges to wage a vigorous campaign in conjunction with French forces during 1780, committing to a strategy of intensified military action to bring the war to a favorable conclusion.
February 1780
February 4-5, 1780:
Congress debates Continental Army quotas for 1780, discussing how many troops each state should provide to ensure the army was adequately manned for the coming campaigns.
February 9, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress sets state quotas and adopts recruitment measures to raise an army of 35,000 men by April 1, 1780. This ambitious goal was part of a broader effort to rebuild the Continental Army after years of attrition.
February 11, 1780 (Friday):
Congress affirms its commitment to the reconquest of Georgia, which had fallen under British control. The southern theater of the war was becoming increasingly critical to American strategy.
February 12, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress confirms the court-martial sentence of General Benedict Arnold. Arnold had been accused of misconduct during his time as the military governor of Philadelphia, though this decision preceded his eventual treason later in the year.
February 16-24, 1780:
Congress debates various proposals for a system of in-kind requisitions from the states. This would allow states to contribute supplies and resources, such as food and clothing, instead of money, which had become scarce due to inflation and economic instability.
February 22, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress debates an issue of congressional privilege arising from a complaint made by delegate Elbridge Gerry. The nature of the complaint is not specified but likely involved a dispute over parliamentary procedures or personal conduct.
February 25, 1780 (Friday):
Congress adopts a system of in-kind requisitions from the states, formalizing the process by which states could supply the army with goods rather than paper money.
February 28, 1780 (Monday):
Congress once again postpones a decision on selecting a new site for its sessions, reflecting continued uncertainty about where Congress could safely convene.
March 1780
March 2, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress postpones debate on the Vermont controversy, a long-standing territorial dispute involving claims by New York, New Hampshire, and the self-declared Republic of Vermont.
March 3, 1780 (Friday):
Congress sets a "day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer," a tradition observed throughout the war to invoke divine favor and inspire perseverance among the American people.
March 4, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress commends John Paul Jones and the crew of the Bonhomme Richard for their famous victory over the British warship Serapis in September 1779, recognizing their bravery and contributions to the war effort.
March 8, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress orders reinforcements for the southern department, where British forces were threatening American control of the region, particularly in South Carolina and Georgia.
March 13-18, 1780:
Congress engages in a series of debates over fiscal reform, discussing measures to address the rampant inflation and depreciation of Continental currency.
March 18, 1780 (Saturday):
In a significant move, Congress repudiates the Continental dollar and adopts measures to redeem bills in circulation at the ratio of 40 to 1. This was an attempt to restore confidence in the currency and control inflation.
March 20, 1780 (Monday):
Congress recommends that states revise their legal tender laws, aligning them with the newly adopted measures to stabilize the value of paper money.
March 21, 1780 (Tuesday):
Debate on the Vermont controversy is again postponed, as the territorial dispute remained unresolved.
March 24, 1780 (Friday):
Congress observes Good Friday, a day of Christian reflection and observance.
March 26, 1780 (Sunday):
Congress observes the funeral of James Forbes, a delegate from Maryland who had recently passed away.
March 27, 1780 (Monday):
Congress rejects proposals for a new site for its sessions, once again deferring the decision. Congress also receives a plan for reorganizing the quartermaster department, which was responsible for supplying the army.
March 29-31, 1780:
Congress debates proposals for adjusting Continental loan office certificates to account for inflation, as the depreciation of paper currency had drastically reduced the value of these certificates.
April 1780
April 1, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress resumes debates on the plan for reorganizing the quartermaster department, reflecting ongoing concerns about the efficiency of the military supply chain.
April 3, 1780 (Monday):
Congress rejects a motion to hear Elbridge Gerry’s appeal, likely related to his earlier complaint of congressional privilege.
April 4, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes the defense of the New York frontier at Continental expense, responding to the threat of British raids and Native American attacks.
April 6, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to send a committee to confer with General Washington at his headquarters, underscoring the importance of close coordination between the political and military leadership.
April 8, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress authorizes partial reimbursement to Massachusetts for expenses related to the failed Penobscot expedition, a disastrous military campaign in 1779.
April 10, 1780 (Monday):
Congress authorizes depreciation allowances for Continental troops, recognizing the financial hardships caused by inflation and seeking to compensate soldiers more fairly.
April 12, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts instructions for the Committee at Headquarters, which was responsible for coordinating with General Washington on military strategy.
April 13, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress formally appoints the members of the Committee at Headquarters.
April 15, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress appoints Joseph Ward as commissary general of prisoners, a key position responsible for managing prisoner exchanges and the treatment of captured soldiers.
April 17, 1780 (Monday):
Congress rejects a proposal to appoint a “resident” at the Court of Versailles, France. This suggests that Congress did not see the need for a permanent diplomatic representative in France beyond the existing commissioners.
April 18, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes depreciation allowances for holders of Continental loan office certificates and commissions for Delaware Indians, reflecting ongoing efforts to stabilize the currency and maintain alliances with Native American tribes.
April 20, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to draw bills of exchange on John Jay, who was serving as Minister to Spain, to finance diplomatic efforts and secure loans.
April 21, 1780 (Friday):
Measures for the relief of prisoners of war are adopted by Congress, ensuring that captured soldiers were provided for while in captivity.
April 24, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts an appeal to the states to meet their fiscal quotas, urging them to provide the necessary funds and supplies for the war effort.
April 28, 1780 (Friday):
Cyrus Griffin is appointed to the Court of Appeals, and William Denning is appointed to the Board of Treasury, filling important administrative roles in Congress.
May 1780
May 2, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress revises commissions, bonds, and instructions for privateers, seeking to regulate the growing number of private ships authorized to attack British vessels.
May 5, 1780 (Friday):
Postal rates are doubled by Congress to help raise revenue, as the cost of maintaining postal services had increased due to inflation.
May 10, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts regulations for replacing destroyed loan office certificates, ensuring that holders of these certificates could still redeem them for value despite losses.
May 15, 1780 (Monday):
Three delegates from Georgia attend Congress, representing the state for the first time in over a year after Georgia had been under British occupation.
May 17, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress considers the report from the Committee at Headquarters, which was presented by delegate John Mathews, detailing the military situation and coordination with General Washington.
May 18-20, 1780:
Congress debates a memorial from French Minister Chevalier de La Luzerne on Franco-American cooperation, reflecting the importance of maintaining and expanding military coordination with French forces.
May 19, 1780 (Friday):
Congress urges the states to remit quota payments immediately, emphasizing the urgent need for funds to sustain the war effort.
May 20, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress issues another urgent call for the states to meet their troop quotas, highlighting the shortages in manpower faced by the Continental Army.
May 22, 1780 (Monday):
Congress urges Delaware to extend its embargo on provisions indefinitely to prevent goods from falling into British hands.
May 23, 1780 (Tuesday):
The Vermont controversy is debated again in Congress, but no final resolution is reached.
May 26, 1780 (Friday):
Congress requests that the states accept Continental certificates in payment of taxes, an attempt to stabilize the currency and ensure its use within the states.
May 29, 1780 (Monday):
Debates over the Vermont controversy continue as Congress grapples with the disputed territorial claims.
May 30, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress rescinds an instruction from the Committee at Headquarters regarding the propriety of reducing the Continental Army, reflecting the need to maintain troop strength despite financial challenges.
June 1780
June 1, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress adopts measures for the defense of the New York and New Hampshire frontiers, where British forces and Native American allies posed a significant threat.
June 2, 1780 (Friday):
Congress censures Vermont settlers and pledges to make a final determination on the Vermont controversy once nine “disinterested” states are represented in Congress, delaying a final resolution.
June 5, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts plans for cooperating with the anticipated arrival of additional French forces, reflecting the growing importance of the Franco-American military alliance.
June 6, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders arms and supplies for the defense of the southern department, where British forces were conducting a major offensive.
June 9, 1780 (Friday):
The Vermont inquiry is postponed until September 12, further delaying a resolution of the territorial dispute.
June 12, 1780 (Monday):
Congress orders restrictions on the issuance of Continental rations to conserve supplies and creates two extra chambers of accounts to facilitate the settlement of staff department accounts.
June 13, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints General Horatio Gates to command the southern department, replacing General Benjamin Lincoln, whose forces had been defeated at the Siege of Charleston.
June 14, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts measures for the defense of the southern department, as the British continued their offensive in the region.
June 15, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress issues a circular letter to the states reinforcing the appeals of the Committee at Headquarters for funds and troops, urging immediate action to meet the war’s demands.
June 19, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures to prevent and punish counterfeiting, which had become a major problem undermining the value of Continental currency.
June 20, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress empowers John Adams, serving as a diplomat in Europe, to seek a loan from the Dutch Republic to finance the war effort.
June 21, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress reaffirms its commitment to Franco-American military cooperation and appoints an agent to transact U.S. affairs in Portugal, reflecting an effort to expand diplomatic and commercial relations.
June 22, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress endorses a plan to establish a private bank for provisioning and supplying the Continental Army, recognizing the need for more reliable financial support for the military.
June 23, 1780 (Friday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the fall of Charleston, South Carolina, which had been captured by British forces in May, and reaffirms support for the defense of Georgia and South Carolina.
June 28, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan for paying depreciation allowances to holders of Continental loan office certificates, recognizing the need to compensate those whose investments had been eroded by inflation.
July 1780
July 3, 1780 (Monday):
Congress orders the Admiralty Board to implement an intelligence gathering plan, reflecting the importance of naval intelligence in the ongoing conflict with Britain, particularly in protecting American and French forces.
July 5-6, 1780:
Congress debates a plan to reform the quartermaster department, focusing on making the department more efficient in supplying the Continental Army with the resources needed for the war.
July 7, 1780 (Friday):
Congress endorses French Minister Chevalier de La Luzerne’s request to allow the shipment of provisions to Spanish forces stationed in the West Indies. This marks the strengthening of Franco-Spanish cooperation in the war against Britain.
July 11, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the publication of its May 1778 resolution requesting the revocation of Articles 11 and 12 of the Franco-American Treaty of Commerce. These articles had been a source of contention between the two allies due to their potential impact on future trade relations.
July 13, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress orders General Washington to seek the exchange of General du Portail, the chief of engineers, who had been captured by the British. Du Portail’s expertise was critical for the fortification and defense of American positions.
July 15, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress reorganizes the quartermaster department, formally keeping Nathanael Greene in his role as quartermaster general, a position that was vital to maintaining army logistics.
July 17, 1780 (Monday):
Congress receives news of the arrival of the French fleet at Rhode Island under Admiral Ternay. This fleet, accompanied by troops under General Rochambeau, was a major boost to the American war effort.
July 19, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress opens debate on the court-martial of Dr. William Shippen, Jr., the director general of hospitals, who had been accused of corruption and mismanagement within the military medical department.
July 20, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress suspends Deputy Quartermaster Henry Hollingsworth from his duties, likely due to charges of mismanagement in the supply chain, as the Continental Army continued to suffer from logistical challenges.
July 25, 1780 (Tuesday):
Charles Pettit is appointed assistant quartermaster general, reflecting Congress’s ongoing efforts to reform and strengthen the logistics of the Continental Army.
July 26, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the deployment of Continental frigates to cooperate with the French fleet, recognizing the need for joint naval operations. Congress also orders reforms in the department of military stores to improve the efficiency of supplying the army with arms and ammunition.
July 27, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress transfers responsibility for issuing privateer commissions and bonds to the office of the secretary of Congress. This centralization was likely intended to streamline the process and reduce fraud or abuse.
August 1780
August 2, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress lifts restrictions on General Washington’s operational authority, giving him greater flexibility to manage the war effort. It also reprimands the Committee at Headquarters for its failure to adequately support the army’s needs.
August 3-4, 1780:
Congress debates Quartermaster Nathanael Greene’s request to resign, reflecting his frustration with the logistical challenges he faced. His resignation request is ultimately rejected.
August 5, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress appoints Timothy Pickering as the new quartermaster general, replacing Greene. Congress also orders Washington to confer with French officers to plan joint operations to expel the British from Georgia and South Carolina.
August 7, 1780 (Monday):
Congress instructs Washington on how to handle prisoner-of-war exchanges and reinforces his orders to bolster the southern department, where the British were gaining ground.
August 9, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes drawing bills of exchange on Benjamin Franklin, the U.S. ambassador to France, to secure additional financial relief for the southern department, which was in dire need of resources.
August 11, 1780 (Friday):
Congress dismisses the Committee at Headquarters, likely due to its failure to effectively manage the army’s affairs, especially in terms of supplies and communication.
August 12, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress reforms the department of military stores and responds to grievances raised by general officers regarding their treatment and conditions.
August 17, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress commends General Rochambeau and the French forces for their conduct since arriving in America, recognizing the importance of the French alliance.
August 18, 1780 (Friday):
Congress confirms the court-martial acquittal of Dr. William Shippen, Jr., who had faced accusations of corruption in his management of the military hospital department.
August 22, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the punishment of abuses within the staff departments, reflecting the ongoing issues of corruption and inefficiency in military administration.
August 23, 1780 (Wednesday):
New regulations are adopted for the issuance of certificates within the commissary and quartermaster departments, aiming to address problems of accountability and transparency. Congress also authorizes additional bills of exchange to be drawn on Franklin in France.
August 24-25, 1780:
Congress extends additional benefits to general officers in recognition of their service and to address grievances related to pay and conditions.
August 26, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress urges the states to implement its March 18 resolves for exchanging Continental currency, as inflation continued to plague the war economy.
August 29, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to plan a "new arrangement of the civil executive departments," part of an effort to streamline the functioning of the government and improve oversight.
August 31, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress receives news of General Horatio Gates' defeat at the Battle of Camden, a major setback in the southern campaign, and begins preparing a response to the crisis.
September 1780
September 1, 1780 (Friday):
Congress receives an informal invitation to trade with Morocco, signaling the first diplomatic overtures between the United States and the North African kingdom.
September 5, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes the issuance of loan office certificates amounting to $1 million in specie value, with 6 percent interest, in an effort to raise additional funds for the war effort.
September 6, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress urges the states to cede their western land claims to the federal government and presses Maryland to ratify the Articles of Confederation, which was still pending Maryland's approval.
September 8, 1780 (Friday):
Congress orders reinforcements for the southern military department, which was in disarray following the defeat at Camden.
September 13, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress sets a new salary schedule for the Continental establishment, addressing ongoing concerns about compensation and the depreciation of Continental currency.
September 14, 1780 (Thursday):
The Vermont dispute is reopened for debate, as the conflict over Vermont’s territorial claims continued to divide the states.
September 15, 1780 (Friday):
Abraham Skinner is appointed commissary general of prisoners, and Congress adopts a plan to ensure a stable meat supply for the Continental Army, addressing concerns over food shortages.
September 19, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress convenes an evening session to continue the debate on the Vermont dispute, indicating the contentiousness and importance of the issue.
September 21, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes the enlistment of troops for one-year terms, as it struggled to fill the army’s ranks with soldiers enlisted for the duration of the war.
September 22, 1780 (Friday):
Congress authorizes drawing additional bills of exchange on Franklin in France, continuing efforts to finance the war through foreign loans.
September 25, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts a new plan for the inspecting department, consolidating mustering functions under the inspector general, in an effort to improve the efficiency of troop inspections and records.
September 26, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to instruct commanders of ships to observe principles conforming to the Russian declaration on neutral rights, reflecting the importance of international law in maritime warfare.
September 27, 1780 (Wednesday):
The debate over the Vermont dispute is postponed again as no resolution could be reached.
September 28, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to limit presidential terms to one year, likely to ensure more frequent turnover in leadership and prevent the consolidation of power.
September 30, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress receives word of General Benedict Arnold’s treason, a shocking revelation that would have a significant impact on morale and trust within the Continental Army. Congress also adopts a new plan for the medical department to improve the care and treatment of soldiers.
October 1780
October 2, 1780 (Monday):
Congress authorizes the drawing of additional bills of exchange on Franklin and John Jay, who were both securing loans in Europe for the war effort.
October 3, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a new establishment for the Continental Army, restructuring its organization to improve efficiency and effectiveness in the field.
October 4, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts instructions for John Jay regarding the navigation of the Mississippi River and the southwestern boundaries of the United States, which were critical issues in future peace negotiations.
October 6, 1780 (Friday):
Congress elects officers for the hospital department, continuing its efforts to reform the military medical system.
October 10, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a Virginia proposal to reimburse the state for expenses related to the cession of its western lands. It also requires that the ceded lands be used "for the common benefit of the United States."
October 13, 1780 (Friday):
Congress appoints Daniel Morgan as brigadier general, recognizing his leadership and contributions to the war effort. It also creates a third chamber of accounts to expedite the settlement of financial claims.
October 14, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress votes to memorialize Baron de Kalb, a major general who had been killed in the Battle of Camden. Congress also commends various officers and troops for their bravery in the battle.
October 16, 1780 (Monday):
Congress receives the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, a meeting of New England states to discuss mutual defense and coordination.
October 17, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a letter of instruction for John Jay, who was negotiating with Spain over the southwestern boundaries and the navigation of the Mississippi River.
October 18, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress instructs John Adams on peace negotiations and sets a day of prayer and thanksgiving, continuing the tradition of seeking divine guidance in times of crisis.
October 21, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress endorses a proposal to receive a delegation from the Cherokee Nation, recognizing the importance of maintaining alliances with Native American tribes. It also revises the Continental Army establishment.
October 23, 1780 (Monday):
Congress receives a report on the American victory at the Battle of King’s Mountain, a major turning point in the southern campaign.
October 24, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress sends an urgent appeal to the states, highlighting the severe distress faced by the Continental Army, which was suffering from a lack of provisions, clothing, and pay.
October 25-31, 1780:
Congress engages in intense debates over proposals for ways and means to finance the war, as inflation and currency depreciation continued to cripple the economy.
October 30, 1780 (Monday):
Congress confirms Nathanael Greene’s appointment as commander of the southern department, replacing General Gates after his defeat at Camden.
October 31, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the deployment of cavalry reinforcements to the southern department to bolster the forces under General Greene.
November 1780
November 1, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the drawing of additional bills of exchange on Franklin to raise more funds for the war effort.
November 3, 1780 (Friday):
Congress rewards the captors of Major John André, the British officer who had assisted Benedict Arnold in his treasonous plot. André’s capture had helped foil Arnold’s plans.
November 4, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress apportions a $6 million specie tax, to be collected chiefly in kind, as part of its efforts to fund the war. William Palfrey is appointed consul to France.
November 7, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes an exchange of prisoners of war, a critical issue as both sides held significant numbers of captured soldiers.
November 9, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress adopts a letter appealing to the states to respond to the present emergency, seeking immediate support in the form of funds, troops, and supplies.
November 10, 1780 (Friday):
Congress adopts measures to curtail enemy fraudulent use of American privateer commissions and directs steps to reduce forage expenses, reflecting ongoing issues of supply management.
November 13, 1780 (Monday):
Congress commends the troops who had engaged in the victory at King’s Mountain, recognizing the significance of the battle for the southern campaign.
November 14, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes capital punishment for individuals convicted of supplying the enemy with provisions or military stores, reflecting the seriousness of such offenses during wartime.
November 16, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress receives a report from the Committee at Headquarters and holds discussions with Pennsylvania officials on maintaining the provisions embargo.
November 17, 1780 (Friday):
Congress resolves to appeal to France for 25 million livres in aid, recognizing the continued need for French financial support.
November 22, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts an appeal to the king of France for additional aid and appoints William Geddes as paymaster general.
November 23, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress rescinds its election of William Geddes as paymaster general, reflecting dissatisfaction or new developments in the appointment process.
November 24, 1780 (Friday):
Congress receives a report on a treasury inquiry, likely related to the management of finances and the ongoing fiscal challenges.
November 27, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures for outfitting Continental ships and issues additional instructions to privateers, aiming to bolster naval operations.
November 28, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress extends half-pay provisions to general officers and instructs Franklin on procuring additional aid from France and cultivating trade relations with Morocco.
November 30, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress adopts revised regulations for the commissary department, reflecting ongoing efforts to improve the efficiency and accountability of military supply chains.
December 1780
December 1, 1780 (Friday):
Congress adopts a statement endorsing Arthur Lee’s conduct abroad, reaffirming its support for the diplomat amid ongoing controversies over his role.
December 4, 1780 (Monday):
Congress prohibits unauthorized military purchases and appoints Simeon De Witt as Geographer to the Continental Army, a key role in mapping and planning military operations.
December 6, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress commends Benjamin Tallmadge and his troops for a successful raid on Long Island, highlighting the importance of guerrilla-style raids against British positions.
December 7, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress observes a national day of prayer and thanksgiving, continuing the tradition of seeking divine support for the American cause.
December 9, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress adopts instructions for William Palfrey, consul to France, reflecting the ongoing importance of diplomatic relations with America’s European allies.
December 11, 1780 (Monday):
John Laurens is appointed as "envoy extraordinary" to France, tasked with securing additional aid and support for the war effort.
December 15, 1780 (Friday):
Congress resolves to appoint a minister to Russia, signaling an interest in expanding diplomatic relations with other European powers.
December 19, 1780 (Tuesday):
Francis Dana is appointed as Minister to Russia, marking a significant step in the formalization of diplomatic ties between the two nations.
December 21, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress debates the impact of John Laurens’ appointment on Benjamin Franklin’s mission in France, considering the potential for overlapping responsibilities.
December 22, 1780 (Friday):
Congress appeals to the states to fulfill their Continental troop quotas, emphasizing the urgent need for reinforcements as the war continued into its sixth year.
December 23, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress adopts formal instructions for John Laurens in his special envoy mission to France, outlining his responsibilities and goals.
December 27, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress instructs Benjamin Franklin on the details of John Laurens’ mission to France, ensuring coordination between the two diplomats.
December 29, 1780 (Friday):
John Adams is commissioned to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with the United Provinces (the Dutch Republic), marking an important step in securing new trade relations and financial support.
Journals of the Continental Congress – United States of America - 1781
January 1781
January 3, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with Pennsylvania officials regarding the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line, a significant crisis in which Continental soldiers stationed in Pennsylvania mutinied over pay and poor conditions. The committee is tasked with addressing the soldiers' grievances while maintaining order.
January 5, 1781 (Friday):
The committee on the Pennsylvania Line mutiny is empowered to "take such measures as may appear necessary to quiet the disturbances." This move reflects the urgency of the situation, as the mutiny had the potential to destabilize military morale. On the same day, Congress issues a threat of retaliation against the British for their mistreatment of American prisoners of war.
January 6, 1781 (Saturday):
Congress revives a committee to focus on the reorganization of the executive departments. This indicates a push to streamline and improve the management of key governmental functions, especially as the war dragged on and the need for more efficient administration became apparent.
January 8, 1781 (Monday):
Congress endorses a proposal to receive a delegation from the Delaware Native American tribe, underscoring the importance of maintaining good relations with Native American allies during the war.
January 9, 1781 (Tuesday):
Congress recommends the prosecution of former Clothier General James Mease for "a high abuse of office," likely connected to corruption or mismanagement in the distribution of military supplies.
January 10, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the establishment of a permanent office for the Department of Foreign Affairs, recognizing the growing importance of diplomatic efforts and the need for a stable structure to manage foreign relations, particularly with France, Spain, and other European powers.
January 12, 1781 (Friday):
Congress endorses a treasury inquiry report that acquits the commissioners of the chambers of accounts. This likely involved a review of financial conduct to ensure transparency and accountability in the handling of public funds.
January 15, 1781 (Monday):
A new fiscal appeal to the states from New Hampshire to Pennsylvania is adopted, reflecting Congress’s ongoing attempts to secure funding from the states in order to sustain the war effort.
January 17, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints John Cochran as the Director of the Hospital Department, responsible for overseeing the medical care of soldiers. John Pierce is also appointed Paymaster General, tasked with managing the payment of troops, a critical position given the ongoing issues with pay.
January 19, 1781 (Friday):
Congress opens debate on the fiscal crisis, which had been exacerbated by inflation, the depreciation of Continental currency, and the states’ reluctance or inability to meet financial requisitions.
January 24, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress receives a report on the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line, which provides details on the causes and current status of the situation, as the unrest among the soldiers posed a serious threat to military discipline and the overall war effort.
January 31, 1781 (Wednesday):
A recommendation from the committee of the whole is received, advocating for a 5 percent impost (a tax on imported goods) to help address the fiscal crisis. This proposal was part of Congress’s ongoing attempts to generate revenue independent of the states.
February 1781
February 2, 1781 (Friday):
Congress rejects Pennsylvania’s appeal for an emergency pay response to address the grievances of the Pennsylvania Line mutineers. This decision underscores the financial constraints Congress faced, despite the pressing need to restore order.
February 3, 1781 (Saturday):
Congress recommends that the states empower it to levy a 5 percent impost, further pressing for a centralized means of raising revenue to fund the war. The lack of financial independence was a major weakness of Congress under the Articles of Confederation.
February 5, 1781 (Monday):
Congress commends General Samuel Parsons' troops for their successful attack at Morrisania, New York, reflecting the ongoing military engagements with British forces. Congress also defines alien property rights under the Franco-American treaties, ensuring that French citizens’ property would be protected under U.S. law.
February 7, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan to create three new departments: finance, war, and marine. This reorganization was designed to improve the management and oversight of the critical functions of government, particularly as the war placed immense strain on resources.
February 8, 1781 (Thursday):
News arrives of General Daniel Morgan's stunning victory at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina. This pivotal battle was a major morale boost for the Continental Army in the southern theater of the war.
February 12, 1781 (Monday):
Congress receives Maryland’s act authorizing the ratification of the Articles of Confederation. Maryland had been the last holdout, primarily due to disputes over western land claims, and its ratification was a significant step toward formalizing the framework of the new government.
February 15, 1781 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes expenditures to support the eastern Native American department and permits John Jay, the U.S. envoy to Spain, to recede from his previous instructions that insisted on the free navigation of the Mississippi River. This change in instructions likely reflected the complexities of negotiating with Spain over territorial and navigation rights.
February 19, 1781 (Monday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the causes of delays in the shipment of clothing and arms from France, recognizing the vital importance of these supplies in sustaining the war effort.
February 20, 1781 (Tuesday):
Congress orders reinforcements and resupply of the southern department, where the Continental Army was fighting to hold off British advances. On the same day, Robert Morris is appointed Superintendent of Finance, marking a critical step in reforming the country’s financial system.
February 22, 1781 (Thursday):
Congress assigns March 1, 1781, as the date for completing and ratifying the Articles of Confederation. This would formalize the union of the states and establish a more permanent structure for governance.
February 23, 1781 (Friday):
Congress debates and recommits the report on the Hartford economic convention, which had focused on financial and economic matters among the New England states.
February 24, 1781 (Saturday):
Congress doubles postage rates, likely in an effort to raise additional revenue, and adopts a plan for ratification ceremonies to mark the official adoption of the Articles of Confederation.
February 27, 1781 (Tuesday):
Congress commends John Paul Jones for his "distinguished bravery and military conduct," particularly for his victory over the British ship Serapis during the famous naval battle off the coast of England. On the same day, Alexander McDougall is elected Secretary of Marine.
February 28, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress postpones the election of the Secretary at War to October 1. Additionally, it imposes restrictions on ornate military uniforms and decorations, perhaps in response to financial constraints and concerns over military discipline. Old business is referred to the newly established United States in Congress Assembled, the formal government structure under the Articles of Confederation.
First USCA: March 2, 1781
Samuel Huntington, USCA President
USCA Journals – United States of America - 1781
March 1781
March 1, 1781 (Thursday):
- New York’s Cession of Western Land Claims: Congress receives New York’s formal cession of its western land claims. This was a significant step in addressing the contentious issue of state claims to western territories, which had delayed the ratification of the Articles of Confederation.
- Maryland Delegates Sign the Articles of Confederation: Maryland, the final state to ratify the Articles, formally signs the document, marking the completion of the Confederation. This ended years of debate and negotiation over the structure of the new government.
- Celebration of the Confederation’s Completion: The ratification of the Articles was celebrated as a major achievement, officially bringing all 13 states into a union under a central government, albeit with limited powers.
March 2, 1781 (Friday):
- First Session of the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA): Congress convenes its first session under the newly ratified Articles of Confederation. Samuel Huntington continues to serve as President of Congress.
- Debates on Representation Rules: Congress begins debating the rules for state representation in the new Confederation Congress. This involved questions about how voting would be structured and how to balance the interests of large and small states.
- Committee to Revise the Rules of Congress: A committee is appointed to revise the rules under which Congress would operate, now that it was functioning under the Articles of Confederation.
March 3, 1781 (Saturday):
- Removal of the Convention Army Prisoners: Congress orders the removal of the "Convention Army" (British and German troops captured at Saratoga in 1777) from Virginia. This was part of efforts to relocate prisoners of war to safer and more secure locations.
March 6, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Plan for Executing Congressional Acts: Congress orders the preparation of a comprehensive plan for “carrying into execution” all acts and resolutions passed by Congress. This directive sought to ensure that the new government under the Articles of Confederation had the administrative capacity to implement its decisions effectively.
March 7, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Depreciation Allowances: Congress orders depreciation allowances for staff department officers. This move was aimed at addressing the financial strain caused by rampant inflation and the declining value of Continental currency, which affected the salaries and morale of government officials and military officers.
March 9, 1781 (Friday):
- Commendation for Victory at the Battle of Cowpens: Congress commends the Continental Army troops for their victory at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina on January 17, 1781. This decisive American victory, led by General Daniel Morgan, was a turning point in the southern campaign of the Revolutionary War.
March 10-14, 1781:
- Debates on Continental Finances: Congress holds debates on the dire state of Continental finances, trying to find solutions to fund the war effort and stabilize the economy. These discussions were driven by the ongoing fiscal crisis caused by inflation, currency depreciation, and the lack of reliable revenue sources.
March 15, 1781 (Thursday):
- Connecticut Act on Continental Imposts: Congress receives an act from Connecticut authorizing Congress to levy imposts (taxes on imports) for a limited time. This was part of broader efforts to give Congress the authority to raise revenue directly, rather than relying solely on state contributions.
March 16, 1781 (Friday):
- Continental Bills as Legal Tender: Congress urges the states to pass laws making Continental bills legal tender. This was an attempt to ensure that the Continental currency remained in circulation and to combat the refusal of businesses and individuals to accept the increasingly devalued paper money.
- Appeals to Meet Fiscal Quotas: Congress appeals to the states to meet their fiscal quotas, urging them to provide the necessary funds to support the war effort.
March 19, 1781 (Monday):
- Bills of Exchange on Benjamin Franklin: Congress authorizes the drawing of bills of exchange on Benjamin Franklin in France, using him as a financial intermediary to secure loans and manage the flow of money from America’s European allies.
March 20, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Fast Day Proclamation: Congress adopts a proclamation for a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer. Such proclamations were common during moments of national crisis and were intended to seek divine guidance and bolster public morale during the hardships of the war.
- Robert Morris’s Conditions for Finance Position Accepted: Congress accepts Robert Morris’s conditions for serving as Superintendent of Finance. Morris, a prominent merchant and financier, had demanded significant authority to manage the nation’s finances effectively.
March 22, 1781 (Thursday):
- Connecticut’s Impost Repeal Request: Congress urges Connecticut to repeal the time limitation from its approval of a Continental impost, pushing for broader and longer-lasting authority to levy taxes on imports.
March 24, 1781 (Saturday):
- French Military Support Pledge: Congress receives a pledge of continued French military support but is also warned of the impending end of French financial aid. This highlighted the precarious nature of America’s reliance on its European allies.
March 27, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Ordinance on Prize Capture: Congress adopts an ordinance regulating the capture and condemnation of prizes, outlining the procedures for dealing with enemy ships captured by American privateers.
March 28, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Board of Admiralty Report: Congress receives a report from the Board of Admiralty on the delay of supplies from France, highlighting logistical challenges and the need for better coordination with America’s allies.
March 30, 1781 (Friday):
- Rejection of McDougall’s Terms: Congress rejects the terms set by General Alexander McDougall for accepting the appointment as Secretary of Marine, which included requests for greater authority than Congress was willing to grant.
March 31, 1781 (Saturday):
- Morris’s Authority in Finance Office: Congress rejects a motion to grant Robert Morris removal authority in the Office of Finance, indicating reluctance to give him complete control over personnel decisions.
April 1781
April 2, 1781 (Monday):
- New York Militia Regiments: Congress authorizes New York to raise two militia regiments at Continental expense to strengthen its defenses, particularly in the face of British military threats in the region.
April 3, 1781 (Tuesday):
- General Burgoyne’s Recall: Congress orders the recall of British General John Burgoyne from his parole, likely in response to his role as a British commander during the Saratoga campaign and his subsequent capture.
- Condemnation of British Treatment of Henry Laurens: Congress prepares a manifesto condemning the British treatment of Henry Laurens, a former president of Congress, who had been captured by the British and imprisoned in the Tower of London.
April 4, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Interest on New Emission Bills: Congress resolves against paying interest on bills of new emission, part of the broader efforts to stabilize the nation’s finances and reduce the fiscal strain caused by currency depreciation.
April 5, 1781 (Thursday):
- Courts of Admiralty Ordinance: Congress adopts an ordinance for establishing courts of admiralty, which would handle legal cases related to maritime law, prize captures, and other naval matters.
April 7, 1781 (Saturday):
- Privateer Regulations: Congress adopts new instructions regulating privateers, ensuring that American privateers acted within the bounds of the law and contributed to the war effort without overstepping their authority.
April 8, 1781 (Sunday):
- Sunday Session on Delmarva Invasion Threat: In a rare Sunday session, Congress convenes to prepare against a threatened British invasion of the Delmarva Peninsula (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia). This reflects the urgency of military threats on the home front.
April 10, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Limitation on Bills of Exchange: Congress orders a limitation on bills of exchange drawn on American ministers abroad, particularly to manage the financial commitments being made in Europe.
April 11, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Magazines for French Forces: Congress orders the establishment of magazines for provisioning French forces, including efforts to defray a credit of $400,000 that had been drawn for Benjamin Franklin in France to support the war effort.
April 14, 1781 (Saturday):
- Commendation for John Paul Jones: Congress commends John Paul Jones, the naval hero who had led daring raids against British ships, including his famous victory over the Serapis.
April 16, 1781 (Monday):
- Continental Officers and Civil Appointments: Congress reaffirms its prohibition against Continental officers holding civil appointments, seeking to maintain a separation between military and civil responsibilities.
April 18, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Public Debt Report Circulation: Congress orders the circulation of a report on the public debt to the states, urging them to take action to address the growing financial crisis facing the new nation.
April 21, 1781 (Saturday):
- Morris’s Removal Authority Granted: Congress grants Robert Morris the authority to remove personnel in the Office of Finance, giving him greater control over the department he was tasked with managing.
April 23, 1781 (Monday):
- Impost Ordinance Preparation: Congress appoints a committee to prepare an ordinance on the impost, aiming to secure a stable source of revenue by taxing imports, which would help fund the war effort.
April 27, 1781 (Friday):
- Actions on Bills of Exchange: Congress orders immediate steps to prevent the drawing of further bills of exchange on John Jay and Henry Laurens abroad, recognizing the risks posed by overextending the nation’s financial commitments.
May 1781
May 1, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Failure to Convene Quorum: Congress fails to convene a quorum, delaying its ability to conduct official business. This reflects ongoing challenges with attendance, as delegates struggled to meet their obligations amidst the war.
May 3, 1781 (Thursday):
- Fast Day Observance: Congress observes a national Fast Day, a tradition calling for prayer, fasting, and reflection during times of crisis.
May 4, 1781 (Friday):
- Revised Congressional Rules Adopted: Congress adopts revised rules for its proceedings, likely aimed at improving efficiency and addressing the procedural challenges that had emerged during the war.
May 8, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Inauguration of “Committee of the Week” Reports: Congress receives a report from the “Committee of the Week,” inaugurating a new procedure designed to expedite the consideration of business. This innovation was intended to streamline congressional decision-making.
May 14, 1781 (Monday):
- Robert Morris Accepts Finance Position: Congress receives Robert Morris’s formal acceptance of the position of Superintendent of Finance. Morris would play a crucial role in stabilizing the nation’s finances and organizing funding for the war effort.
- “Ways and Means” Measures Adopted: Congress adopts new “ways and means” measures for defraying the costs of the upcoming campaign, continuing efforts to secure the necessary financial resources for the war.
May 16, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Authorization to Sell the America: Congress authorizes John Jay to sell the America, a 74-gun ship of the line still under construction in Portsmouth, to Spain. This sale was intended to raise funds and build stronger ties with Spain, a key ally.
May 18, 1781 (Friday):
- Authorization for General Wayne to Impress Provisions: Congress authorizes General Anthony Wayne, known for his aggressive military tactics, to impress provisions (forcibly requisition supplies) to support the army in the southern theater of the war.
May 21, 1781 (Monday):
- Proposal for a National Bank: Congress receives a proposal from Robert Morris to establish a national bank. Morris believed that a stable banking system would provide the financial support needed to win the war and stabilize the economy.
May 26, 1781 (Saturday):
- Approval of Plan for a National Bank: Congress approves Morris’s plan for establishing a national bank in the United States. This would lead to the creation of the Bank of North America, the first commercial bank in the U.S., designed to stabilize currency and facilitate government borrowing.
May 28, 1781 (Monday):
- Navigation of the Mississippi River: Congress authorizes John Jay to recede from the demand for free navigation of the Mississippi River, a key issue in negotiations with Spain. This concession was part of efforts to secure Spain’s support for the war.
- Austro-Russian Mediation Offer: Congress considers a report on a conference with the French minister, La Luzerne, regarding an offer by Austria and Russia to mediate peace between the United States and Britain.
May 31, 1781 (Thursday):
- Emergency Call for Troops: Congress issues an emergency call for additional troops to reinforce the southern department, where the British were still conducting aggressive campaigns.
June 1781
June 1, 1781 (Friday):
- Appeals to States to Meet Quotas: Congress appeals to the states to meet their fiscal and manpower quotas, emphasizing the urgency of maintaining the Continental Army’s strength and securing funding for the war.
June 4, 1781 (Monday):
- Allocation of French Financial Aid: Congress authorizes the Superintendent of Finance, Robert Morris, to allocate financial aid received from France. This aid was essential for continuing the war effort and keeping the Continental Army supplied.
June 7-9, 1781:
- Revised Peace Negotiation Instructions: Congress adopts revised instructions for the minister plenipotentiary, outlining the terms and strategy for negotiating peace with Britain. The instructions were updated to reflect the changing geopolitical situation and America’s relationship with its European allies.
- Rejection of Additional Peace Commissioners: A motion to appoint additional peace commissioners is rejected, reflecting Congress’s desire to keep the negotiations streamlined and focused.
June 11, 1781 (Monday):
- Appointment of Additional Peace Commissioners: Congress resolves to appoint two additional peace commissioners to assist in negotiating the eventual peace treaty with Britain. This decision was likely influenced by the complexity of the negotiations and the need to balance multiple diplomatic priorities.
June 13, 1781 (Wednesday):
- John Jay Appointed Peace Commissioner: John Jay, already serving as the U.S. minister to Spain, is appointed as an additional commissioner to negotiate peace. Jay’s experience and diplomatic skills made him a valuable asset to the negotiating team.
- Letter of Thanks to King of France: Congress adopts a formal letter of thanks to the King of France, Louis XVI, acknowledging France’s continued military and financial support during the war.
June 14, 1781 (Thursday):
- Exchange of John Burgoyne for Henry Laurens: Congress authorizes the exchange of British General John Burgoyne for Henry Laurens, the American diplomat and former president of Congress who had been imprisoned by the British. This exchange was seen as a significant diplomatic victory.
- Appointment of Additional Peace Commissioners: Congress resolves to appoint Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson to negotiate peace with Britain, assembling a highly skilled diplomatic team to secure a favorable treaty.
June 15, 1781 (Friday):
- Instructions for Minister Plenipotentiary: Congress adopts new instructions for the minister plenipotentiary, updating diplomatic guidelines for negotiations with foreign powers, particularly concerning peace talks and alliances. This was part of Congress’s ongoing efforts to manage relations with European nations.
June 16, 1781 (Saturday):
- Corporal Punishment for Troops: A motion is introduced to increase the severity of corporal punishment for Continental troops, but Congress rejects the proposal. The rejection reflects concerns over maintaining troop morale and discipline in a way that did not overly rely on harsh punishment.
June 18, 1781 (Monday):
- Regulations for the Clothier General's Department: Congress adopts new regulations for the office of the clothier general, the official responsible for supplying clothing to the Continental Army. These reforms were necessary to address the ongoing supply shortages affecting the army.
June 19, 1781 (Tuesday):
- Instructions for Benjamin Franklin: Congress adopts further instructions for Benjamin Franklin, the U.S. minister to France. The instructions likely pertain to ongoing diplomatic and financial negotiations with the French government.
- Franklin's Resignation Request Rejected: Congress rejects Franklin’s request to resign from his diplomatic post. Franklin had previously indicated a desire to retire due to health and age, but his importance to the American diplomatic mission was too great for Congress to accept his resignation.
June 23, 1781 (Saturday):
- Launch of the America: Congress directs Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance, to expedite the launch of the America, a 74-gun ship of the line under construction for the Continental Navy. This ship was seen as critical to bolstering American naval power.
June 25, 1781 (Monday):
- Appointment of Appeals Judges Rejected: Congress rejects a motion to appoint judges for appeals cases “during good behaviour,” which would have meant lifetime appointments. The decision reflects Congress’s wariness about concentrating too much power in unelected officials during the war.
June 26, 1781 (Tuesday):
- John Paul Jones Appointed to Command the America: Congress appoints the famed naval commander John Paul Jones to take command of the America. Jones was a celebrated hero for his victories at sea, and this command represented a major responsibility for him.
- Francis Dana Appointed Secretary to the Peace Commissioners: Francis Dana is appointed as the Secretary to the Peace Commissioners, further strengthening the team involved in negotiating the peace with Britain.
June 27, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Appointment of Robert Smith as Agent at Havana: Congress appoints Robert Smith as the American agent in Havana, Cuba. His role was likely related to diplomatic and commercial activities, as well as coordinating with Spanish authorities and ensuring aid flowed through Havana.
July 1781
July 2, 1781 (Monday):
- Approval of 300 Pennsylvania Riflemen for Washington: Congress approves General George Washington’s request for the deployment of 300 riflemen from Pennsylvania. These troops were likely intended to reinforce Washington’s forces as he prepared for major military operations.
July 4, 1781 (Wednesday):
- Independence Day Observance: Congress observes Independence Day, marking the fifth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Celebrations of this day took on special significance in the midst of ongoing military campaigns.
July 6, 1781 (Friday):
- Samuel Huntington’s Resignation: President of Congress Samuel Huntington formally submits his resignation. Huntington had served as president since 1779, but he was stepping down due to health concerns.
July 9, 1781 (Monday):
- Election of Samuel Johnston as President of Congress: Congress elects Samuel Johnston, a delegate from North Carolina, as the new president of Congress. However, Johnston declines the position, citing personal reasons.
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National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Independence Hall Class of 2017 students at Federal Hall National Historic Park with Ranger holding the 1789 Acts of Congress opened to the 12 Amendment Joint Resolution of Congress issued September 25th, 1789. The only amendment in the "Bill of Rights" that was not ratified is Article the First, which is still pending before Congress. Cintly is holding an Arthur St. Clair signed Northwest Territory document, Imani is holding the First Bicameral Congressional Act establishing the U.S. Department of State and Rachael is holding a 1788 John Jay letter sent to the Governor of Connecticut, Samuel Huntington, transmitting a treaty with France. – Primary Sources courtesy of Historic.us |
Later Years and Continued Public Service
Despite his fragile health, Samuel Huntington’s commitment to public service remained as unwavering as ever. In 1784, Huntington was elected Governor of Connecticut, a role in which he would serve for over a decade, until his death. His tenure as governor was characterized by thoughtful leadership during the post-war reconstruction period, when Connecticut, like other states, was grappling with economic challenges, infrastructural needs, and the broader task of reintegrating returning soldiers into civilian life. Huntington was reelected annually, demonstrating the confidence and trust Connecticut’s citizens placed in his leadership.
As governor, Huntington focused on initiatives that would stabilize and rebuild Connecticut’s economy, understanding that economic strength was critical to the stability and growth of the state. He advocated for fiscal prudence, seeking to pay down war debt while encouraging local industries, which were essential for self-sufficiency in a recovering economy. Huntington also supported Connecticut’s agricultural sector, which was the backbone of its economy. His administration promoted farming initiatives and supported agricultural innovation, knowing that food security was paramount for both economic and social stability.
Huntington also saw education as an essential pillar for the future of Connecticut and the new republic. He was a strong proponent of public education, believing it was foundational for an informed citizenry and a stable government. Under his leadership, Connecticut increased its support for schools and higher education. Huntington advocated for policies that emphasized civic education, moral instruction, and classical learning, principles that he believed would shape virtuous citizens capable of participating in the democratic process. His commitment to education reflected his belief that an informed population was crucial to the survival of the republic.
As the federal government under the Constitution began to take shape, Huntington continued to champion the ideals of a united republic. He believed that the states should work together to support federal governance, a position he had long held since his days in the Continental Congress. He advocated for cooperative relationships between state and federal authorities, emphasizing that the country’s success relied on collaboration, not competition, between the states and the new federal government. His balanced stance on federalism helped Connecticut navigate the challenges of state and federal dynamics during the early years of the republic.
Huntington’s governance style was marked by a deep respect for the rule of law, which he viewed as the foundation of a stable society. He prioritized legal reforms that reinforced the rule of law in Connecticut, promoting transparency and accountability in government. Huntington’s calm demeanor and commitment to public welfare earned him the trust of his constituents. His approach was never flashy, but it was effective, and he became a steadying presence in Connecticut’s political landscape, guiding the state with wisdom and restraint. Despite his declining health, he remained active in his duties, personally overseeing legislative sessions, meeting with town officials, and addressing the concerns of ordinary citizens.
Death and Legacy
Samuel Huntington passed away on January 5, 1796, at the age of 64. Over two centuries later, on November 24, 2003, he and his wife, Martha Huntington, were re-interred in the Old Norwich-town Cemetery in Norwich, Connecticut. Historian Stanley Klos delivered the keynote at the re-interment ceremony, underscoring the enduring significance of Huntington’s contributions to the founding of the United States.
Unlike the preserved estates of Washington’s Mt. Vernon, Jefferson’s Monticello, or Madison’s Montpelier, Samuel Huntington’s home in Norwich remains simple, functioning today not as a grand monument but as an office for a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing healthcare for struggling Connecticut citizens. In many ways, this modest use of his former home is fitting: Huntington, a leader of humility and pragmatism, dedicated his life to public service without seeking accolades or fame.
Throughout his career, Huntington placed duty above personal ambition, committing himself fully to each role, from a local attorney to the governor of Connecticut. His contributions to the young United States were foundational, especially during his tenure as President of the Continental Congress and later as the first “President of the United States in Congress Assembled.” Huntington’s leadership helped secure the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, providing a legal structure that unified the thirteen colonies into a single nation. His steady hand guided Congress through numerous challenges, including the complex issues of war funding and international diplomacy, laying the groundwork for the federal system that would later be strengthened under the U.S. Constitution.
Although Huntington’s legacy is often overshadowed by his more famous contemporaries, his life serves as a profound example of the value of steadfast, quiet service. His unassuming leadership, rooted in integrity and a deep sense of responsibility, set an important standard for future American leaders. Huntington’s commitment to justice, character, and respect for democratic processes embodies the qualities essential to effective governance. Though his contributions may be less celebrated, they were crucial in shaping the early republic and ensuring its survival.
In an era defined by grand gestures and revolutionary ideals, Huntington’s focus on governance, unity, and practicality was a refreshing contrast. His dedication to public welfare and modesty continues to remind us of the importance of impactful yet humble leadership. For future generations, Samuel Huntington’s life offers a powerful lesson: quiet strength, grounded in integrity and purpose, can have a lasting impact on a nation’s path. Huntington’s legacy exemplifies how even the most reserved leaders can profoundly shape the foundation of the United States, leaving a legacy that is both subtle and deeply enduring.
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
September 5, 1774 | October 22, 1774 | |
October 22, 1774 | October 26, 1774 | |
May 20, 1775 | May 24, 1775 | |
May 25, 1775 | July 1, 1776 |
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776 | October 29, 1777 | |
November 1, 1777 | December 9, 1778 | |
December 10, 1778 | September 28, 1779 | |
September 29, 1779 | February 28, 1781 |
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781 | July 6, 1781 | |
July 10, 1781 | Declined Office | |
July 10, 1781 | November 4, 1781 | |
November 5, 1781 | November 3, 1782 | |
November 4, 1782 | November 2, 1783 | |
November 3, 1783 | June 3, 1784 | |
November 30, 1784 | November 22, 1785 | |
November 23, 1785 | June 5, 1786 | |
June 6, 1786 | February 1, 1787 | |
February 2, 1787 | January 21, 1788 | |
January 22, 1788 | January 21, 1789 |
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
USCA | Session Dates | USCA Convene Date | President(s) |
First | 03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781* | 03-02-1781 | |
Second | 11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782 | 11-05-1781 | |
Third | 11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783 | 11-04-1782 | |
Fourth | 11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784 | 11-03-1783 | |
Fifth | 11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785 | 11-29-1784 | |
Sixth | 11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786 | 11-23-1785 | |
Seventh | 11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787 | 02-02-1787 | |
Eighth | 11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788 | 01-21-1788 | |
Ninth | 11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789** | None | None |
* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781. The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.
Philadelphia | Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774 | |
Philadelphia | May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776 | |
Baltimore | Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777 | |
Philadelphia | March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777 | |
Lancaster | September 27, 1777 | |
York | Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778 | |
Philadelphia | July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783 | |
Princeton | June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783 | |
Annapolis | Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784 | |
Trenton | Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784 | |
New York City | Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788 | |
New York City | October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789 | |
New York City | March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790 | |
Philadelphia | Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800 | |
Washington DC | November 17,1800 to Present |
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Dr. Naomi and Stanley Yavneh Klos, Principals
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